Imagine going to the store to buy some apples. You wander down the produce aisle and find some bright red apples that look delicious. When you get home, you take a bite of one of the apples, only to discover that it’s rotten on the inside! What appeared to be a perfect apple was anything but. This metaphor is how Mark Twain described the age between the Civil War and the beginning of the 20th century, which he dubbed the “Gilded Age.”
Much like the apple you purchased from the store, the period outwardly appears one way only to be revealed as something else entirely upon closer investigation. This period embodies a dualistic narrative—an appearance of progress and abundance masking underlying societal conflict and challenges. It marks a crucial point where important elements came together to greatly change the United States, shaping its path and national identity.
Captains of Industry
Industrialization emerged as the cornerstone of this transformative era. The rapid expansion of industries, including steel, railroads, and manufacturing, heralded a monumental shift from an agrarian to an industrial economy. This surge in industrialization propelled the United States into a global economic powerhouse, reshaping its identity on the world stage.
This transformative period witnessed the rise of titans of industry, often referred to as “robber barons” or “captains of industry.” This includes individuals like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and J. P. Morgan, whose business empires wielded immense economic influence.
Advancements in Technology
The steel industry, led primarily by Andrew Carnegie, underwent a remarkable transformation, revolutionizing construction, transportation, and manufacturing. Carnegie’s vertical integration model, which encompassed every phase of steel production, allowed for cost efficiency and immense profitability. Oil magnate John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company dominated the petroleum industry, amassing considerable control through vertical and horizontal integration. Standard Oil’s production facilities employed thousands of Americans and modernized the cities of Cleveland, Ohio and Houston, Texas. J. P. Morgan, a prominent financier, orchestrated mergers and consolidations, establishing industrial giants like US Steel in 1901, one of the world’s largest corporations at the time. Each industry employed millions of Americans through a wage- and time-based system.
Americans responded by spending more money on items for themselves and their families. New art forms, literature, and innovations in entertainment grew, marking the inception of a burgeoning consumer culture that became synonymous with the era. Though it wasn’t much, the free time that workers did have led to a greater standard of living among most, compared to the countries from where they had emigrated originally. Breakthroughs like the telephone, electricity, and telegraph revolutionized communication and infrastructure. These innovations transformed interpersonal connections and business interactions. The telegraph, previously a mainstay of long-distance communication, saw advancements, facilitating quicker transmission of information across vast distances. The harnessing of electricity, epitomized by Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla’s pioneering work, illuminated cities and revolutionized daily life. Electric lighting and power spurred industrial growth, enabling the rise of new industries and fundamentally altering societal routines.
Labor Movements and Challenges
These advancements permeated society, fostering a newfound interconnectedness and shaping the fabric of daily life. The social and economic landscape of the Gilded Age was defined by unprecedented growth and innovation, much of which can be attributed to the captains of industry. However, their dominance did raise concerns about monopolistic practices and the concentration of wealth and power, creating debates about the morality of extreme wealth, workers’ conditions, and the role of government in regulating big business.
The working class endured appalling conditions, facing grueling work environments that ignited a wave of strikes and led to the formation of labor unions such as the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor. These movements sought to challenge the prevailing norms and advocate for improved working conditions and fair wages. Unions had difficulty recruiting workers, however, because their organizations were criminalized and endured major violence when engaged in strikes.
Strikes such as the Railroad Strike of 1877, the Homestead Strike of 1892, and the Pullman Strike of 1893 all ended in violence, with dozens of workers injured or dead. In each strike, the government was solicited by factory owners and used to end the worker demonstrations violently. The use of government force to help factory owners only further raised the alarm concerning the role of government in regulating business.
Despite the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act and Sherman Anti-trust Act in 1887 and 1890, respectively, little had been done to dismantle the power of monopolies. The reality was that the most powerful men in the country were not elected officials but the industrial leaders who employed millions and exercised the greatest individual wealth the country had ever seen to spread their influence. The increase in immigration and urbanization in the United States during the Gilded Age gave the industrial leaders more input on the practice of government than ever before because they were the ones who employed and housed the millions who emigrated to the United States.
Expansion and Native American Displacement
Urban centers expanded as people migrated to cities looking for work. This mass migration, coupled with an influx of immigrants—primarily from Europe—fueled cultural diversity and population growth. By 1890, the Lower East Side of New York City was the most densely populated metropolitan area in the world. Unfortunately, immigrants arrived in a country rife with political corruption, where political machines and patronage systems wielded substantial control over local and state governments. This environment facilitated corruption scandals that tarnished the era’s political landscape and eroded public trust. Seeking a better life and more economic opportunity, many immigrants and citizens ventured westward, looking for a new start to life.
Westward expansion was a defining characteristic of this period. The completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 linked the East and West coasts; facilitated the movement of goods, people, and ideas; and fostered economic growth and national unity. Railroads became a symbol of progress and played a pivotal role in shaping the country’s geographical and economic landscapes.
Along with transportation services, settlers were spurred on to move West by government legislation. The Homestead Act of 1862 gave all settlers the opportunity to own 160 acres of land, and the discovery of “excess” land in Native American territory in the late 1880s created the Oklahoma Land Rush, where land was practically free. However, the Native Americans already in the West did not want further settlement.
The Struggle for Native American Rights
During the Gilded Age, Native American war would be commonplace throughout the American West as the United States government tried to push tribes off the land and into reservations located in Oklahoma. Many tribes resisted, such as the Sioux, Lakota, Apache, and Nez Perce. Native American warriors fought valiantly to resist American Imperialism, and heroes emerged, such as Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce, Geronimo of the Apache, and Sitting Bull of the Sioux. Gradually, the resources of the American military were too much for Native Americans to overcome, and tribes made peace treaties that resettled their communities to Oklahoma.
Some Native Americans took advantage of the Dawes Act, which promoted their settlement of land in the West by giving it to them for free as long as their family resided in the same location for five years. To completely remove the threat of Native Americans, however, the government adopted an assimilation approach with Native American children through education. Through forced boarding schools, Native American children were “Americanized,” or socialized to be more American, by dressing in certain ways, learning English, and adopting Christianity. These boarding schools would exist in the United States well into the 20th century.
Review
The Gilded Age encapsulates a pivotal chapter in American history—a period teeming with industrial progress, societal challenges, cultural renaissance, and the seeds of reform. This period also saw a massive influx of immigrants, primarily from Europe, seeking opportunities and a new life in the United States. These immigrants, arriving in waves, contributed significantly to the country’s cultural diversity and labor force but faced challenges, including discrimination and exploitation in the rapidly industrializing cities.
The emerging urbanization fueled by industrialization and immigration led to the rapid growth of cities. Skyscrapers dotted the skyline, and bustling metropolises became hubs of commerce, industry, and cultural exchange. However, this also brought about overcrowding, unsanitary living conditions, and social issues, accentuating the contrast between the opulent lifestyles of the elite and the struggles of the working class.
Perhaps no group was more marginalized during the Gilded Age than Native Americans, millions of whom were killed during Westward Expansion. Survivors were resettled in a foreign area, and their children were forced to endure boarding schools that attempted to “Americanize” them.
While this age of American history was elevated by its technological advancements and industrial achievements, it is also marked by the extreme suffering and injustices endured by immigrants and Native American people, illustrating the stark contrast between the heights of progress and the depths of human tragedy.
I hope this review was helpful. Thanks for watching, and happy studying!
